The Histories of Earth (Part Two)
Herein is described when Persian might met the defiance of Greece. The ancient world trembled as the Greek states mustered their courage for a struggle that still echoes through eternity.
Artwork by Zvonimir Grbasic
Chapter 7
I. King Darius of the Persian Empire, determined to punish the Crotoniats and subdue Greece, first laid siege to Samos.
II. Samos was then ruled by Maeandrius, who had usurped power after the death of their former leader, Polycrates. And Polycrates’ legitimate successor was Syloson, an ally of the Persians.
III. When the Persian navy arrived, Maeandrius, unwilling to resist, negotiated a peaceful surrender.
IV. However, his brother Charilaus, released from prison, persuaded Maeandrius to allow him to attack the Persians, hoping to weaken the island before Syloson's arrival.
V. The battle for Samos resulted in heavy Persian casualties, and Otanes, serving as a general and the leader of this campaign, grew enraged. At his orders the defeated Samians were massacred in revenge.
VI. Maeandrius fled to Sparta, seeking refuge and support. He attempted to bribe the King of Sparta, Cleomenes, with lavish gifts.
VII. Yet Cleomenes, displaying integrity, refused and advised the Spartans to expel Maeandrius.
VIII. Meanwhile, the Babylonians, taking advantage of the turmoil in Persia, revolted against King Darius. They prepared for a siege and defied any imperial attempts to retake the city.
IX. After a year and seven months of unsuccessful ventures, Zopyrus, son of Megabyzus, devised a daring plan. He mutilated himself and pretended to defect to the Babylonians, claiming to have been mistreated by Darius.
X. The Babylonians, believing his story, entrusted Zopyrus with command of their troops.
XI. Zopyrus, following his plan, waited for the opportune moment and then opened the city gates to the Persian army.
XII. Babylon fell once again, and King Darius, regaining control, punished the rebels harshly. In recognition of Zopyrus's immense contribution to the capture of Babylon he showered him with honors and rewards, including the governorship of Babylon for life.
XIII. With his empire secure, the Persian king turned his attention back to Greece, determined to fulfill his long-held ambition of conquering the West.
XIV. Darius amassed a vast army and ordered the construction of a bridge across the Bosphorus to connect Asia and Europe.
XV. Despite warnings about the difficulties of invading Scythia, King Darius remained resolute that an expedition to the north was necessary before his invasion of the West. The Persian army marched forth from Susa at his orders.
XVI. Upon reaching the Bosphorus, the King of Persia surveyed the impressive bridge built by Mandrocles, a Samian engineer. He also took the opportunity to survey the Pontus, a remarkable sea.
XVII. Darius then crossed into Europe and instructed the Ionians to sail to the Danube River and build a bridge there, then await his arrival. Coes, the Mytilenaean general, advised Darius to leave the bridge intact and guarded, to ensure a safe retreat in case the Scythian campaign proved unsuccessful.
XVIII. King Darius, impressed by Coes's counsel, agreed and entrusted the bridge to the Ionians. He then marched his army through Thrace, leaving behind markers to guide their return journey.
XIX. The Scythians, aware of the approaching Persian army, sought alliances with neighboring nations to resist the invasion.
XX. Some tribes refused to join the alliance, while others, like the Sauromatae, pledged their support.
XXI. Each tribe possessed unique customs and histories, yet the Sauromatae, with their fierce warrior women, stood out.
XXII. Legend tells of how the Greeks, after defeating the Amazons at Thermodon, attempted to take them captive back to Greece. But the Amazons, skilled warriors known as "manslayers" by the Scythians, rebelled and killed their captors.
XXIII. Adrift on the unfamiliar sea, the Amazons landed on the shores of the Scythian territory. The Scythians, mistaking them for young men, engaged them in battle.
XXIV. Upon discovery of their true nature, the Scythians decided to send young men to court the Amazons, hoping that these remarkable women would bear them children.
XXV. The Amazons, realizing the Scythians' intentions were not hostile, responded favorably, and the two groups began to mingle. Eventually, the Scythians proposed a more settled life, but the Amazons, unwilling to abandon their customs, suggested they move beyond the Tanais River to live independently.
XXVI. The Scythians agreed, and together they journeyed forth to establish their new homeland, becoming known as the Sauromatae. The Sauromatae women continued their warrior traditions, hunting, fighting alongside men, and wearing similar attire.
XXVII. The Scythians and their allies, unwilling to engage the Persians in open battle, adopted a strategy of retreat and harassment, driving off their herds, destroying resources, and launching surprise attacks.
XXVIII. The Persian army, unfamiliar with the terrain and lacking supplies, began to suffer attrition and grow increasingly anxious.
XXIX. The Scythians, sensing their vulnerability, sent Darius a series of symbolic gifts: a bird, a mouse, a frog, and five arrows.
XXX. The King of Persia interpreted these gifts as a sign of surrender, but Gobryas, one of his advisors, offered a different interpretation: the Scythians were challenging the Persians to either fly away like birds, burrow like mice, or hide in the marshes like frogs, or face death by their arrows.
XXXI. Meanwhile, the Scythians sent a detachment to the Ionians guarding the bridge, promising them freedom if they agreed to destroy the bridge after the designated sixty days.
XXXII. The Ionians, swayed by the prospect of freedom and the Scythians' threats, agreed to dismantle the bridge.
XXXIII. The Scythians, believing the Persians were trapped, returned to confront them, but the Persians, following Gobryas's advice, had abandoned their camp and were already retreating towards the Danube.
XXXIV. The Scythians, misled by the braying of the asses left behind by the Persians, missed their opportunity to intercept them.
XXXV. The Persians, despite their losses and hardships, managed to reach the bridge and cross back into Asia.
XXXVI. The Scythians, frustrated by their failure to defeat the Persians, held the Ionians in contempt for their perceived betrayal.
Chapter 8
I. King Darius's failed Scythian campaign reverberated throughout his empire, revealing the limits of his power. Many saw it as a sign his weakness.
II. In Persia, however, the desire to conquer Europe only intensified.
III. The struggle between Persia and Greece, East and West, was about to enter a new, decisive chapter, and the spark would ignite in Miletus.
IV. Histiaeus, the tyrant of Miletus, had been rewarded by King Darius for his service in Scythia with the finest architect of the era to beautify his city.
IV. Darius, however, grew wary of Histiaeus's growing influence, especially when he learned that he was fortifying Miletus with walls. Suspicion took root and the king summoned Histiaeus to Susa, with the intent to hold him hostage as a counselor.
V. Histiaeus appointed his ambitious nephew Aristagoras as deputy governor of Miletus. Aristagoras, seeking to increase his own power, launched an unsuccessful expedition against the independent island of Naxos and the Cyclades.
VI. Fearing the King of Persia's wrath for this failure, Aristagoras hatched a daring plan: to incite a rebellion against Persian rule in Miletus with the help of the Greeks.
VII. He first approached Sparta, the most powerful Greek state, attempting to persuade King Cleomenes with promises of wealth and descriptions of Persian vulnerability.
VIII. However, Cleomenes, influenced by the wise words of his young daughter Gorgo, refused to be drawn into the conflict.
IX. Aristagoras then turned to Athens, where he found a more receptive audience. He appealed to their sense of kinship with Miletus, an Athenian colony, and their desire for freedom and glory, exaggerating the ease of defeating the Persians.
X. The Athenians, swayed by his promises and passionate pleas, voted to send twenty ships under the command of Melanthius to suport the Ionian rebellion. With Athenian support, Aristagoras launched an attack on Sardis, which fell easily, except for the citadel defended by Artaphernes.
XI. However, a fire broke out in Sardis fueled by the city’s reed-constructed houses, which rapidly spread. The Ionians and Persians retreated, with the Ionians finally escaping to their ships under the cover of night.
XII. The Persians, enraged by the burning of Sardis, pursued and defeated the Ionians at Ephesus. Despite this setback, the Ionians continued their rebellion,
capturing Byzantium and other cities in the Hellespont and gaining support from Caria and Cyprus.
XIII. King Darius, upon learning of the rebellion and Aristagoras's role in it, vowed revenge on the Athenians.
XIV. He summoned Histiaeus, accusing him of complicity. Histiaeus, faking ignorance, convinced Darius to send him back to Ionia to quell the rebellion.
XV. Meanwhile, the Persians launched an attack on Cyprus. Onesilus, the Cyprian leader, appealed for assistance from the Ionians, but the Ionians refused to abandon their naval posts.
XVI. In the following battle, the Ionians defeated a fleet sent from Phoenicia, but the Cyprians were ultimately defeated and re-enslaved by the Persians. Aristagoras, seeing the rebellion falter, fled to Thrace, where he was killed in battle.
XVII. Histiaeus, returning to Sardis, was exposed as a conspirator against the king by the satrap Artaphernes, and forced to flee. He attempted to raise a new rebellion in the Hellespont, but his efforts were in vain. He too met his end at the hands of the Persian general Harpagus.
XVIII. Other Persian generals, Daurises, Hymeas, and Otanes, pursued the Ionian fleet and systematically conquered rebellious cities on their way. The inhabitants were subjected to brutal reprisals, with boys castrated and girls sent as slaves to the king. Entire cities were burnt to the ground.
XIX. Miletus, the city that sparked the rebellion, fell after a six-year siege. The citizens were enslaved and relocated after the Persians overtook them.
XX. The Athenians, deeply affected by the fall of their colony, mourned the loss and vowed to resist Persian domination. They even expressed their grief by punishing Phrynichus, the playwright who depicted the capture of Miletus.
XXI. The Samians, refusing to submit to Persian rule, abandoned their city and established a new life in Sicily.
XXII. The Persians continued their campaign, conquering the remaining Ionian cities and islands.Their advance continued into the Hellespont, capturing cities along the European coast.
XXIII. King Darius, intent on conquering Greece, appointed Mardonius to lead a massive invasion force. However, the expedition met with disaster, losing many ships and men to storms and suffering defeat at the hands of the Brygi.
XXIV. The Persian king, undeterred, began planning a new invasion, and sent heralds to demand submission from Greek cities.
XXV. The Athenians and Eginetans, already at odds, clashed when the Eginetans submitted to Darius. This conflict escalated into war, further encouraging the plans of the King of Persia.
XXVI. Darius appointed Datis and Artaphernes as commanders of a new invasion force, ordering them to conquer Eretria and Athens. The Persian fleet, avoiding the treacherous route around Mount Athos, sailed through the Aegean islands, capturing Naxos and other islands along the way.
XXVII. The Persians then attacked Eretria, which, despite Athenian support, was betrayed by two citizens and fell to the invaders.
XXVIII. The Persians then set their sights on Athens, landing at Marathon.
XXIX. The Athenians, led by Miltiades and other generals, marched to Marathon and prepared for battle.
XXX. Miltiades, advocating for immediate action, persuaded Callimachus, the Polemarch, to cast his vote in favor of violence.
XXXI. When the vote was cast, the Athenians, employing a novel tactic of charging at a run, clashed with the Persians on the plain of Marathon. After a fierce and heroic struggle, the Athenians and their Plataean allies emerged victorious, routing the Persian army and driving them back to their ships.
XXXII. The Athenians then marched back to Athens to defend against a potential Persian landing, forcing the Persians to retreat back to Asia.
XXXIII. King Darius, enraged by this defeat, began planning an even larger invasion of Greece. However, his plans were interrupted by a revolt in Egypt.
XXXIV. While preparing for both campaigns, Darius fell sick and died, and his son Xerxes ascended the throne.
XXXV. King Xerxes, initially focused on Egypt, was persuaded by Mardonius to avenge his father’s defeat and reprioritize the conquest of Greece. He was further encouraged by invitations from the kings of Thessaly, who were favorable of Persian rule, and from various Greek noble families that had been exiled after their failure in political struggles, who pleaded to Xerxes for his support in their vendettas.
Chapter 9
I. With Egypt subdued, the King of Persia turned his full attention to the conquest of Greece. He convened an assembly of his most esteemed advisors, seeking their counsel on this momentous undertaking.
II. Xerxes reminded them of the glorious conquests of Cyrus, Cambyses, and Darius, declaring that his own ambition was to surpass their achievements and expand the Persian Empire to encompass all lands touched by the sun.
III. King Xerxes outlined his plan to bridge the Hellespont and march his army across Europe, seeking vengeance against the Athenians for their defiance and the burning of Sardis. He envisioned conquering not only Athens, but also Sparta, to extend his dominion and bring all humankind under his rule.
IV. Mardonius, Xerxes's influential advisor and general, fueled the king's aspirations, dismissing Greek military prowess and highlighting their internal divisions.
V. Mardonius argued that the Persians, with their vast army and superior fighting skills, would easily overcome any resistance.
VI. However, Artabanus, Xerxes's uncle, offered a dissenting voice. He cautioned the king against underestimating the Greeks and reminded him of the dangers posed by the land and sea. He recounted the story of Persian difficulties in Scythia and the near disaster at the Danube bridge. He argued that the vastness of the Persian army could become a liability, making it vulnerable to logistical challenges and potential naval defeats.
VII. The Persian king, initially angered by Artabanus's words, eventually heeded his counsel and postponed the invasion.
VIII. However, after further deliberation and spurred by Mardonius's unwavering support, Xerxes recommitted to the campaign. He dismissed Artabanus's concerns and sent him back to Susa, his mind set on conquest.
IX. For four years, preparations for the invasion of Greece consumed the Persian Empire. A vast army, drawn from diverse nations across Asia, Africa, and India, was assembled. Ships were built, provisions were stockpiled, bridges were constructed, and canals were carved into the Earth.
X. And the satraps of the empire vied with each other to equip their contingents in the most magnificent fashion.
XI. King Xerxes led this colossal force across the Halys River, traversing Phrygia and reaching the city of Celaenae. There, he was lavishly entertained by Pythius, a fabulously wealthy citizen who pledged his allegiance and offered generous gifts. The King of Persia impressed by his loyalty, promised him lasting friendship and bestowed upon him further riches.
XII. As the army marched through Lydia, Xerxes paused at Sardis, the former capital, and dispatched heralds throughout Greece, demanding tokens of submission and the preparation of feasts in his honor. Only Athens and Sparta were exempt from these demands, a clear indication of the king’s desire for vengeance.
XIII. The Persian army reached Abydos, where a magnificent double bridge, constructed by Phoenician and Egyptian engineers, spanned the Hellespont.
XIV. However, a violent storm shattered the bridge, delaying the crossing and provoking King Xerxes's wrath.
XV. He ordered the waters of the Hellespont themselves to be flogged and fettered by his soldiers, a futile display of his hubris and frustration.
XVI. The King of Persia ordered the construction of a new bridge. This time, the engineers used a combination of triremes and other vessels, anchored securely and connected by strong cables, to create a more robust structure.
XVII. With the bridge completed, the Persian army began its historic crossing into Europe. For seven days and nights, the humongous multitude of soldiers, animals, and equipment crossed the bridge, a spectacle that filled King Xerxes with both pride and a sense of melancholy as he contemplated the fleeting nature of human life.
XVIII. The Persian army, bolstered by contingents from every city it passed, marched through Macedonia towards Greece. Each city, following Xerxes's earlier demands, provided food and drink for the enormous host.
XIX. The Greeks, meanwhile, were divided in their response. Some, fearing the Persian might, submitted, while others, led by Athens and Sparta, prepared for resistance.
XX. The Athenians, under the leadership of Themistocles, resolved to rely on their powerful navy, which they had strengthened in anticipation of the Persian threat.
XXI. The loyal Greek states convened and agreed to put aside their differences to face the common enemy.
XXII. They dispatched spies to gather intelligence on the Persians and sent envoys to Argos and Gelo, the powerful ruler of Syracuse, to seek their support.
XXIII. Gelo, however, demanded overall command of the Greek forces as a condition for his assistance. This demand was rejected by both Sparta and Athens, leading to a stalemate. Nevertheless, Gelo remained vigilant, ready to intervene if the situation in Greece became dire.
XXIV. The Corcyraeans, despite initially promising aid, adopted a wait-and-see approach, hoping to avoid conflict with the Persians and secure favorable treatment.
XXV. The Thessalians, on the other hand, demonstrated their commitment to the Greek cause by urging their fellow Greeks to defend the pass of Thermopylae.
XXVI. A combined Greek force, led by the Spartan Evaenetus and the Athenian Themistocles, occupied the pass of Tempe in Thessaly. However, they were soon forced to retreat due to the overwhelming size of the Persian army and the existence of an alternate route through the mountains.
XXVII. The Greeks then decided to make their stand at Thermopylae, a narrow pass that negated the Persian advantage in numbers and cavalry. They also positioned their fleet at Artemisium, allowing for easy communication and support between their land and naval forces.
XXVIII. As the Persian fleet approached, a small contingent of Greek ships engaged them in a skirmish. Two ships were overtaken after a valiant fight and the Greeks managed to escape with their bounty.
XXIX. The main Persian fleet, undeterred by this minor setback, set sail from Therma and arrived at Sepias in Magnesia.
XXX. The stage was set for a decisive confrontation between the two forces, a clash that would determine the fate of Greece and the future of the West.
Chapter 10
I. King Xerxes's colossal army, seemingly unstoppable, marched unimpeded through Thrace and Macedonia, its numbers still awe-inspiring despite losses suffered in a storm off Cape Sepias. The original fleet of twelve hundred and seven ships, carrying great multitudes of soldiers from across the Persian Empire, had been augmented further by contingents from conquered territories, swelling the ranks to a previously unimaginable size.
II. The Persian land forces, numbering over two million men, were accompanied by a seemingly endless train of camp followers, women, and animals.
III. The sheer scale of the expedition was a testament to Xerxes's audacity and the immense resources of the Persian Empire.
IV. Yet amidst this seemingly invincible force there were whispers of doubt.
V. The storm that had afflicted the fleet was seen by some as an ill omen, a sign that even King Xerxes's strength was not infinite.
VI. And at Thermopylae, a narrow pass guarding the entrance to Greece, a small but determined force of Greeks stood ready to defy the Persian tide.
VII. Led by Leonidas, a Spartan king of unwavering resolve and bravery, the Greek contingent comprised three hundred Spartans, a thousand Arcadians, four hundred Corinthians, and smaller detachments from other city-states, totaling around seven thousand men. They were joined by the Locrians of Opus and a thousand Phocians, who had been persuaded to join the defense of Greece.
VIII. While the main Greek forces were still gathering, this vanguard took their stand at Thermopylae, knowing that the narrow pass would negate the Persian advantage in numbers and cavalry. Leonidas, aware of the immense responsibility before them, sent envoys to the various Greek cities, pleading for reinforcements.
IX. Xerxes, King of Persia, after reaching Thermopylae, was surprised by the courage of the Greeks.
X. The king sent a mounted scout to assess the strength of the Greeks. They were amused to find the Spartans engaged in physical exercises and grooming their long hair. The Persians interpreted this as a sign of weakness and arrogance, failing to grasp the Spartans' mastery of the martial arts and their tradition of preparing for battle with meticulous care.
XI. For four days, Xerxes waited, expecting the Greeks to flee in the face of his overwhelming army.
XII. On the fifth day, his patience exhausted, the Persian king ordered the Medes and Cissians to attack and bring the Greeks before him alive.
XIII. And the Persians underestimated the Greeks' courage and skill.
XIV. The Medes, despite their ferocity, were repeatedly repelled from the pass, suffering heavy losses.
XV. Frustrated by their lack of progress, King Xerxes sent his elite guard, the Immortals, under the command of Hydarnes, to break the Greek resistance.
XVI. But even these seasoned warriors were met with fierce opposition.
XVII. The Spartans, fighting with disciplined precision and employing clever tactics, inflicted heavy casualties on the Persian armies.
XVIII. Xerxes, witnessing the carnage from his throne, distant from the battle, was reportedly shaken by the unexpected resistance. The battle raged throughout the day, but the Greeks held their ground. The Persians, demoralized and depleted, were forced to withdraw.
XIX. The next day, the Persians renewed their assault, hoping to find the Greeks weakened and demoralized.
XX. However, the Greeks, rotating their formations and fighting with unwavering determination, continued to defy the odds. The Persians, unable to break through, once again retreated in defeat.
XXI. The King of Persia, frustrated by the Greek resistance, found himself in a strategic quandary.
XXII. It was then that Ephialtes, a Malian driven by greed, approached the Persian king with a proposition. He offered to reveal a secret path that led across the mountains and would allow the Persians to bypass the Greek defenses at Thermopylae.
XXIII. This act of treachery would seal the fate of the brave Greeks who had held their ground against the invaders.
XXIV. Ephialtes's betrayal would not go unpunished. Fearing Spartan retribution, he fled to Thessaly, where a price was placed on his head by the Amphictyonic Council. Years later, he was slain by Athenades, a Trachinian, who, though motivated by personal reasons, was nonetheless honored by the Spartans for ridding the world of this most egregious of traitors.
XXV. King Xerxes, seizing upon the opportunity of the secret mountain path, dispatched Hydarnes and his elite Persian guard to follow Ephialtes under the cover of darkness.
XXVI. They traversed the treacherous mountain path, their movements masked by the rustling of oak leaves in the still night air.
XXVII. At dawn, the Phocians guarding the mountain pass were alerted by the sound and hastily armed themselves. They were surprised to encounter the Persians, whom they initially misidentified for Spartans. However, the Persians quickly engaged the Phocians in battle.
XXVIII. The Phocians, overwhelmed by the Persian archers and believing themselves to be the primary target, retreated to the mountain peak, prepared to make a final stand. But the Persians, focused on their ultimate objective, bypassed them and descended the mountain with haste.
XXIX. As dawn broke, the Greeks at Thermopylae received the devastating news of the Persian flanking maneuver from deserters and scouts.
XXX. A council was held and opinions were divided.
XXXI. Some argued for holding their position, while others advocated for retreat.
XXXII. Ultimately, the Spartan king, recognizing the futility of further resistance and prioritizing the safety of their allies, ordered them to withdraw.
XXXIII. However, King Leonidas and his three hundred Spartans, bound by their code of honor and resolute commitment to duty, refused to abandon their post.
XXXIV. They were joined by the Thespians, who chose to stay and fight alongside the Spartans to the death.
XXXV. As the sun rose, King Xerxes, following Ephialtes's advice, waited until the hottest part of the day before launching his final assault.
XXXVI. The Greeks, knowing their fate was sealed, charged out of the narrow pass and engaged the Persians in a final, desperate battle. They fought with unmatched ferocity, inflicting heavy casualties on the enemy.
XXXVII. Leonidas, leading from the front, fell in the midst of the fray, surrounded by his fallen Spartans.
XXXVIII. A fierce struggle ensued over their king’s body, with the Greeks ultimately retrieving it in a display of extraordinary courage.
XXXIX. With the arrival of Hydarnes and his elite troops, the remaining Greeks, including the Thespians, retreated to a small hillock at the entrance of the pass.
LX. There, they made their final stand, fighting with their swords, hands, and teeth until they were overwhelmed by the Persian onslaught.
LXI. The fall of Thermopylae marked a turning point in the Persian invasion. While the Persians had secured a victory, they had also witnessed the discipline, skill, and fierce resistance of the Greeks. The battles to come would prove to be far more challenging than Xerxes had ever imagined.
LXI. The bravery and sacrifice of King Leonidas and his soldiers, who fought to the death against overwhelming odds, became a cornerstone of Greek legend, a confirmation of their prowess and devotion to their country.
LXII. The Battle of Thermopylae served as a rallying cry for the rest of Greece. It inspired all Greeks to unite and resist, ensuring that the fight for freedom would continue.
LXIII. And the sacrifice of those who fall in battle bravely fighting for a just cause will never be in vain.